Silver Mining
The chain of events that led to the rise of historic mining towns in the American Southwest often followed a familiar pattern: valuable ore was discovered in predictable geologic settings, but Silver Reef broke that pattern. Here, silver was found in sandstone—a geologic surprise that set this district apart. Nowhere else in the Americas has minable quantities of valuable ore been found in sandstone.
There are many “pieces to the puzzle” that together form the Silver Reef mining district. As you scroll through this article, you’ll learn how each piece came to be and how they ultimately combined to create the landscape and mining history you see today when visiting Silver Reef.
In This Article
To fully understand the unique silver mining process here at Silver Reef, we suggest you read this article in its entirety, plus the related articles. If you are looking for a specific topic, select on of the options below to jump to that topic.
- Setting the Stage – starts explaining the geology behind the silver deposits
- Transition Zone – blending of two large geologically unique regions
- Hurricane Fault – the border of those two regions
- Springdale Sandstone – where the silver was found
- Virgin Anticline – what uplifted the sandstone
- Where the Silver was Mined – those holes you see in the ground
- How the Silver was Mined – the process of removing the precious ore
- How the Miners Dug Ore – drilling holes and blasting
- Supporting the Mines – keeping the mines operating
Setting the Stage
Several geologic processes needed to take place before silver was created and then found by prospectors. The following explains each of those processes.
Transition Zone
The Silver Reef mining area is located inside a transition zone of two well-known geologic provinces in the Southwest – the Colorado Plateau and the Basin and Range. Geologic influences from both provinces can be found all around the St. George area. See the article covering Southwest Utah’s Triple Junction of Landscapes to learn more about this specifically.
Hurricane Fault
The boundary between these two provinces is the Hurricane Fault. East of this natural divide lies the orderly, horizontal sedimentary layers of the Colorado Plateau. West of the fault, those same layers have been bent, tilted, and distorted by tectonic forces that acted long after the sediments were originally deposited. This deformation has tipped some layers upward and exposed them at the surface, making it easy to examine their outcropped rocky composition.
Silver Reef sits just west of the Hurricane Fault. The fault line is visible by looking east out of the museum’s front door. See the article on the Hurricane Fault that explains more of its significance to this area and how it set into motion the geologic events that would lead to the creation of silver.
Springdale Sandstone
One of those sedimentary layers on both sides of the fault is called the Springdale Sandstone. It’s named after the town of Springdale at the foot of Zion Canyon. The layer is about 100 feet (30 m) thick. In Springdale and in the beginning of the canyon, it can easily be made out as a short reddish vertical cliff just above the base of the mountains. The Springdale Sandstone is a subunit of the larger Kayenta Formation. The other subunit of the Kayenta lays above the Springdale Sandstone and consists of thinner, rocky layers and typically erodes into cliffs that are not as vertical.
That same Springdale Sandstone layer extends west across the Hurricane Fault. The layer takes on a more white or cream color tint and is often seen tilted at a roughly 30 degree angle. Long ridges can be seen all around Silver Reef that are tilted up in similar directions. These ridges are known as reefs. See the article named What is a Reef? to learn more about how reefs have historically influenced Utah.
Virgin Anticline
Most of the other sedimentary layers above and below the Springdale Sandstone were also tilted. This tilting was done by yet another piece to Silver Reef’s geologic puzzle, the Virgin Anticline. This was an upwarp in the Earth’s surface that was created by crustal extension between the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range in California and the Hurricane Fault. Just like what happens when one pushes a loose carpet into a wall, a portion of it folds up. The same thing happened with the Earth’s surface as it was pushed against the Hurricane Fault. See the article on the Virgin Anticline to learn how it too has influenced everything going on at Silver Reef.
Hover mouse over red-pulsating dot to reveal a location the Virgin Anticline
Finally, after all the geologic processes described above, the silver‑bearing ore somehow formed within the Springdale Sandstone through chemical reactions that are not yet fully understood. The best current interpretation is that, before the sandstone was uplifted, tilted, and exposed, it was influenced by heat from magma beneath the Earth’s surface—possibly related to the nearby Pine Valley Mountains—and later altered by circulating groundwater. Whatever combination of forces was responsible, the result was remarkable: Silver Reef became one of the only places on Earth where precious metals formed inside sandstone.
Where the Silver is Mined
Rocks with silver chloride from these exposed reefs tumbled off them and on to a flat surface, where a prospector named John Kemple discovered them in 1866. Kemple was puzzled because, as a prospector, he knew finding silver in sandstone wasn’t possible, or has never been found before. After further searching, and with considerable effort to convince others, the source of those silver‑bearing rocks were traced to those uptilted reefs.
It wasn’t until 1875 when actual mining began. Shortly after, the word was out and the silver rush was on. People from all over, mainly from the nearby silver mining town of Pioche, Nevada, came to Silver Reef and began filing their own mining claims. Most of those claims were made on top of the reefs described in the What is a Reef? article.
Inside the layers of Springdale Sandstone is where the silver-bearing rock formed. It formed into what miners call a “lens”, simply because it’s shaped like a glass lens. Lenses are also referred to as “seams” and “ore bodies”. It’s these lenses that miners would ultimately dig into and extract silver-bearing rock.
Silver Reef sits near an odd junction of where three reefs somehow got geologically separated. The main or primary reef is called the White Reef and can be traced from behind the Silver Reef museum, then south paralleling I-15 for six miles. The reef that broke off is called the Buckeye Reef. Next to the Buckeye is the Leeds Reef. All of these reefs are layers of Springdale Sandstone and tilted in the same direction on account of the Virgin Anticline.
Below is a short repeating video showing the location of all three reefs.
After Kample’s discovery, mines would be developed in all of these reefs. Mines were later developed a few miles southeast of Silver Reef, on the other side of the Virgin Anticline, where similar reefs were tilted up in the opposite direction. This would become known as the Babylon section of the Silver Reef mining district.
How the Silver was Mined
In order to extract the ore, miners dug shafts (tunnels) into the reefs, usually horizontally. These horizontal shafts are called adits. Miners also dug vertical shafts, some straight down and others at steep angles. These were called vertical shafts and inclines, respectively. Below are examples of such mine openings that can be found around Silver Reef.
Where the ore body or lens was located inside the Springdale Sandstone, a “stope” would be dug, which is basically a large cavity inside the sandstone. The rock that was inside the stope would be carried out, using ore cars that were pulled by mules, and deposited into a rock pile outside the mine.
The following diagram shows the various features of a typical mine, including either an adit or a shaft, a stope, different horizontal diggings referred to as “levels” where a lot of the digging work took place, and headframes that hoisted the ore from the stope out to the surface.
Below is map and cross-section of the Barbee-Walker Mine showing it’s various levels and stoped out areas. It was published in newspapers and mining journals of the day (in the 1880s). The deepest level of the mine was the 500 Level, which meant the mine went down 500 feet (150 meters). This cross-section can be found in the book described below.
Rock that did not contain silver ore was dumped near the mine entrance. These piles of discarded rock became the tell‑tale clue that a mine opening of some kind is nearby. They are often mistakenly called “tailings,” but the correct term is “waste piles”. Tailings are similar accumulations of leftover material, but they form at mills, where ore is crushed and processed—the next stop for any silver‑bearing rock.
How You Can Learn More
Much of the information about the mining in Silver Reef was obtained from the book Silver, Sinners and Saints, A History of Old Silver Reef, Utah. To learn more about the mining that occurred here, as well as the history behind Silver Reef in general, purchase your own copy of this book at the Silver Reef museum book store.
How Miners Dug Ore
In the 1870s, digging the shafts, levels and stopes required cutting into solid rock using either “single-jacking” or “double-jacking” methods. Many miners that immigrated to the USA specifically to work in the mines were Cornish (people of Cornish descent from Cornwall, England). Cornish miners earned the name “Jack”. This is where the “jacking” term came from.
Single-jacking consisted of one man (a single “Jack”) working alone with a short hammer and a hand-held drill bit. The miner would strike the drill with the hammer, rotate the drill a few degrees, then strike it again. This process was repeated again and again. Even the hardest of rocks yielded to these persistent poundings and turning of the bit.
Double-jacking consisted of two men (two “Jacks”) working together. One would hold a longer drill bit and the other would use a sledgehammer to strike the bit. Although this required two men instead of one, it resulted in cutting into more rock faster.
The purpose of both single and double jacking was to drill holes into the rock. Once the holes were deep enough, they were loaded with blasting powder, fused, and lighted. The miners would then exit the mine quickly to safety. Often, this would signal the end of a miners’ shift. After the dust settled, the next shift of miners would go in and do the job of “mucking”. This process would remove the broken rock, known as muck, created as a result of the blast. This loosened rock would be transported out of the mine by both ore car through an adit or an ore bucket out of a vertical or inclined shaft.
As the rock was brought out to the surface, mining engineers would be constantly testing or assaying the rock for its silver content, as well as other valuable minerals that may exist. This told the engineers if they were either digging in the direction of the ore body described above or not. If they were, the single and double jackers were told to continue digging their course. If they weren’t, then they were instructed to dig in another direction.
Rock that did not contain silver ore was dumped near the mine entrance. These piles of discarded rock became the tell‑tale clue that a mine opening of some kind is nearby. They are often mistakenly called “tailings,” but the correct term is “waste piles”. Tailings are similar accumulations of leftover material, but they form at mills, where ore is crushed and processed—the next stop for any silver‑bearing rock.
Supporting & Supplying the Mines
Once mines were developed, different types of supplies were needed to support all the different trades involved in keeping the mines going. It was known that the people that provided those supplies and services made far more money than the miners themselves, including the mine’s owners.
Supplies included:
- Mining tools such as shovels, picks, hammers, chisels, rope, and other assorted hardware
- Blasting material, such as dynamite and black powder
- Livestock such as mules and horses, plus supplies to support them such as tack and feed
- Metal goods, such as ore cars and rails
- Lumber for buildings, wagons, supporting mine shafts, rail ties, ore bins, etc.
- Miners’ needs such as food, water, candles, etc.
Services included:
- Teamsters for managing and handling livestock
- Blacksmiths for forging all the metal hardware that was needed
- Assayers for measuring the silver content or value of ore taken out of each mine
- Living quarters and hotels
- Cooks, bakers, farmers, and more…
All these supplies and services needed to be available in Silver Reef for the silver mining to thrive.
Mining Needed Timber
Underground mining usually consumes a lot of lumber, not only for cutting cord wood to power the steam engines and fire furnaces inside the mills, but also to shore up the mining tunnels to protect the miners from possible rock falls and collapses. To fulfill this need, trees from nearby forests needed to be harvested.
In the area around Silver Reef, a lot of trees have already been cut down by then for fuel and building materials. A large stand of trees grew on the west side of the Pine Valley Mountains. Some of them were already harvested to furnish lumber for the grand organ of the Morman Tabernacle in Salt Lake City. In 1880, the owners of the Barbee & Walker Mine recognized the need for a dependable source of good timber, so they secured government permission to cut trees on the west side of the mountains. The lumber had to be transported around the mountains to Silver Reef, adding more cost to the overall mining operation.
There was also a large forest of trees at the top of the Pine Valley Mountains, a mere seven “crow-fly” miles from Silver Reef. Cut timber from here could literally be dropped down a very steep incline to a newly constructed road up to what is now known as Oak Grove. From the end of the road, the lumber would only need to be transported by wagon for a short distance.
Sometime in 1880, an enterprising individual named Bob Rickard built a chute to carry logs from atop the Pine Valleys, several thousand feet down to Oak Grove. The chute dropped almost 4,000 feet in less than a mile. Rickard planned a grand celebration for everyone to come up and watch the first logs come down from the mountain above. Drinks were passed around a toast was made. Guests at this special event watched breathlessly as the first log came sliding down the chute at terrific speed and successfully made its precipitous journey to the bottom. However, the second and third log wasn’t as successful. The second log jumped out of the chute and damaged it. The third log damaged it more and a rapid destruction of the chute followed as more logs came down. In a cloud of wood splinters and dust, the entire chute was destroyed. Minutes after celebrating the opening, Rickard proclaimed another round of drinks to toast and celebrate the closing of his chute.
Milling the Silver
The story of silver mining continues with the milling process. A separate article explains how the mills around Silver Reef operated, along with details about its seven mills. See the Mills of Silver Reef.
There’s also a separate article about the Mines of Silver Reef that explains more of the mining process and shows the locations of most of the Silver Reef mines on an interactive map.
Related Information
- The Mines of Silver Reef – Covers the main mines of Silver Reef
- The Mills of Silver Reef – Explains about the mills in Silver Reef
- What is a Reef? – Why the ridges around Silver Reef are so important
- Hurricane Fault – The border of two geologic regions that influenced Silver Reef
- Virgin Anticline – The geologic process that uplifted the silver ore